Anthropology of Food: Essay on Medicinal Cannibalism

Anthropology of Food Essay on medicative CannibalismAbstractCannibalism has been a topic of morbid fascination, condemnation, and strong subject of academic and moral argument. Medicinal bottomnibalism and corpse medicine became a pervasive occurrence in be sequences modern Europe and America. Egyptian mummies pulverized into powder, introduction course of those latterly executed and tragic wholey died, fat, agate line, skull and moss of the dead mans skull were in high demand by physicians and their patients. Paracelsian chemists and physicians (a notorious medical movement in the late sixteenth and s plainteenth century based upon theories and therapies of Paracelsus) made very c beful removal and habituate of the entire valet de chambre corpse. Thomas Willis, Robert Boyle, Charles II of England and a host of self-feeder gentry and aristocrats actively inciteicipated in this practice, along with the lucrative underground humansity of executi geniusrs, merchants, and grave robbers. This essay delves into the facts of medicinal cannibalism, calculated body parts, and ameliorate practices.IntroductionIn order to understand Medicinal Cannibalism, it is important we first understand what cannibalism is Cannibalism is the recess or up payoff of integritys have species. medical exam Cannibalism or the proper term iatric cannibalism is the ritualistic eating of human flesh for purpose of healing the human body. The consumption of mummies and human tissue became a disreputable pharmaceutical drug employ widely all oer the Europe, and were unbosom s centenarian at highly regarded German pharmacies as recent as 1908, and take flyer to be practiced in the Pacific Ocean islands as late as the second half of the 20th century.Medical Cannibalism was usual and hit the bill of popularity during the 16th and 17th centuries. Many European royals, scientists, and clergy usually ingested medical potions containing human blood, fat, bodied secretion s, and b wizs believed to cure every(prenominal)thing from cuts and bruises to seizures.MethodSo Jesus said to them. Very truly, I tell you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you permit no life in you -John 653In order to gain an understanding roughly the history of medical cannibalism, we need to explore the Christian followers and their macabre healing practices. In the Christian faith, the correlation between the deceased and the god deal has been a elemental part of ceremony and worship.Very earliest on, flocks of flock worshippers prayed everywhere the dead martyred saints believing the saints physical remains provided a ghostlike connection between man and God. Their decaying bodies and their bodily composition ( much(prenominal) as blood, flesh, organs, bones, and secretions) believed to have holy powers to provide miracles of healing and the escape of musical noteual and mortal death. These larceny and vandalism of these bodies grew so widespread pillowcaseually, requiring re billet of the bodies to secure resting interposes.Stories of these healing miracles continued to be reported by those who prayed or touched these saints corpses Saint Catherine of Sienas mummified point displayed at the Church of San Domenico in Siena, Italy and is believed to have healing powers. Catherine of Siena was believed to have had performed a healing ritual for a nun dying from breast malignant neoplastic disease described as twice forced herself to over have sex nausea by thrusting her mouth into the putrefying breast and drank her pus. (Sugg, 2012) In central Italy, the faithful would rain buckets olive oil over the martyred Saint Felixs through holes in the tomb and collect the oil that had run over his decaying body to anoint the sick. (Sugg, 2012)By the Middle Ages, Christian Europe was no longer satisfied consumption of dead saints, but had grown to also hunger for human bodies. familyFor the life of the flesh is in th e blood, and I have given it for you on the altar to make atonement for your souls, for it is the blood that makes atonement byt the atonement by the life. -Leviticus 1711Human blood believed to contain the essence of spirit and life and through consumption the bloods life essence is transferred. Regarded as the superior scientist of his m, Saint Albertus Magus (1206-1280), prescribed a roughly precious water containing the di understooded blood from a wellnessy man. He decl bed any disease of the body, if it be anointed therewith, is made whole and all inward diseases by the drinking thereof. A picayune quantity thereof received, restoreth them that have lost all susceptibility it cureth the palsy consequenceuously, and preserveth the body from all sickness. (Sugg, 2012)In 1483, King Louis XI ail and struggling to live, drank the blood of small children Every day he grew worse, and the medicines profited him nada, though of a strange character for he vehemently hoped to re b andaging by the human blood which he took and swallowed from certain children. (Himmelman, 1997) In 1492, Pope necessitous VIII near death after a violent buffet drank blood drained by his personal physician of three two-year-old boys causing their death as well as the unsuccessful healing of the pope resulting in death.The scientific approach to medical practice during the metempsychosis triumphed over the faith-based healing of the chivalric creating great advancements in chemistry. biology, and medicine. Oddly enough, medicinal cannibalism reached the peak of popularity and the art of alchemy.Decay is the beginning of all birth-and of all health -ParacelsusAlchemic philosophy of corpse medicine was uncomplicated through decomposition, old matter transformed into raw material in one plate again. Refinement of human organic matter is the base of the essence of life.Theophorastus Bombastus von Honenheim (1491-1541) early literature is safe of revelations pertaining to the pot ent medicinal power in the beneficial healing of an individuals ailments. The textbook and medical studies of medicinal cannibalism and corpse pharmacology, reveals the common mail service practice of ingesting human bodily matter and reveals a culture preoccupied.According to early literature (980-1037), the white plague of mummies was the preparation that could cure epilepsy, nausea, colds, and the antidote of poison. By the late 16th century, the sparing consumption of mummies became a re immediatelyned pharmaceutical drug used widely all over the Europe, and were still revision at reputable German pharmacies as recent as 1908.i Further, ingestion of human bodies was practiced in many an(prenominal) of the islands in the Pacific Ocean until the second half of the twentieth century. The call into question necessarily occurs whats good most it? Ingestion of human bodies is not necessarily an appealing notion even to the people in the sixteenth century. When one is prescri bed a half a pound of mamma dust by a doctor as a remedy for a cold, it sounds like the risk isnt worth taking, for one could smack many questions such as, For how long do I need to take it? or to a greater extent than obviously, Does that work? and so on. Dwelling deeper, can one consume an opposite being of the same species? What would its moral implication be? App bently, these are types of questions that were asked and have been asked by those who promoted medicinal ingestion of flesh as well as the deliberate act of cannibalism. In this paper, I depart examine the types of cannibalisms as well as focussings to prepare human flesh, discuss the theoretical and practical implications of cannibalism and briefly touch upon the alleged human relationship between cannibalism and witchcraft in early modern Europe.If you havent read a good deal more or less antique Egyptian mummies, you may be shocked to delay that in centuries past, they were ground up into a fine powder d eal by pharmacists to be topically applied or orally ingested as a treatment for ailments as diverse as up fixate stomach, gout, and epilepsy. Mumia (or mummia) was beginning(a) prepared in the 12th c., was in common use by the 15th c., and reached great popularity by the 17th c. Mummy is become merchandise, Mizraim cures wounds, and Pharaoh is sold for balsams, wrote Sir Thomas Browne in 1841. Mummy powder was in such demand that the supply of ancient Egyptians slowed and contemporary corpses were substituted. Mumia was still available as belatedly as the early 20th c. Fast forward to 2012, when scientists are again looking to mummy as a cure. They fear that our (over)use of antibiotics has ravage our intestinal flora, which in turn has changed our metabolism, damaging our immune system and impart to obesity. Cecil Lewis of the University of Oklahoma is comparing the bacteria in the poop of ancient mummies who lived onward the age of antibiotics to our own gut bacteria so th ey can understand out what has changed. My first hypothesis would be that chlorinated water and antibiotics fundamentally changed human microbiomes, says Dr. Lewis, who adds, Its too early to tell if its a good idea to repopulate our mainstay with bacteria. But its certainly an important idea that requires investigation. And presumably a more sophisticated method than ingesting mumia 1st image) An apothecary vessel inscribed MUMI once contained powdered mummy and is now a specimen in the drugstore collection of the Museums fr Hamburgische Geschichte, 2nd image) Alisa Eagleston and Elizabeth Cornu, conservators from the San Francisco Fine Arts Museum, cover the 2,500-year-old mummy of an Egyptian man named Irethorrou after being scanned at the Stanford Medical Center.These are some of the many posts I have written just about ancient Egypt, if you care to read on antediluvian patriarch Egyptian perfume, Rediscovery of ancient Egypt, Raiding ancient Egypt, Ancient Egyptian finds, T he nurse and the sphinx, Mummy toes, Ramesses repatriation, Mummies guarded, The mummies in question, and Egyptian obelisks elsewhere.Nobles forward-looking book,Medicinal Cannibalism in Early in advance(p) English Literature and Culture, and another by Richard Sugg of Englands University of Durham,Mummies, Cannibals and Vampires The History of frame medicate from the Renaissance to the Victorians, reveal that for several hundred years, peaking in the 16th and 17th centuries, many Europeans, including royalty, priests and scientists, routinely ingested remedies containing human bones, blood and fat as medicine for everything from headaches to epilepsy. There were few vocal opponents of the practice, even though cannibalism in the newly explored Americas was reviled as a mark of savagery. Mummies were stolen from Egyptian tombs, and skulls were taken from Irish burial sites. Gravediggers robbed and sold body parts.BibliographyDolan, M. (2012). The Gruesome History of Earing Corps es as medicinal drug History . Retrieved from Smithsonianmag.com http//www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-gruesome-history-of-eating-corpses-as-medicineGordon-Grube, K. (1993). Evidence of Medicinal Callnibalism in Puritan modernistic England Mummy and Related Remidies. Early American Literature , 28, p. 185.Himmelman, P. (1997). The Medicinal ashes An Analysis of Medicinal Cannibalism in Europe, 1300-1700. Dialectical Anthropology , 22, p. 183.Noble, L. (2011). Medicinal Cannibalism in Early Modern English Literature and Culture. New York Palgrave Macmillian.Peters, H. (1899). Pictorial History of Ancient Pharmacy With Sketches of Early Medical Practice. Chicago G.T. Engelhart Company.Sugg, R. (2012). Mummies, Cannibals and Vampires The History of Corpse Medicine From the Renaissance to the Victorians. Hoboken Taylor Francis.The entries have these elements author(s) year of publication gloss and source (publisher for books, and title of journal for reports or articles). Book titles are underlined titles of articles are in denotation marks journal titles are italicized. The journal title is followed by the heap number, then the number within the volume (or the month or season, depending upon the journals style) in parentheses, and then the page numbers.Citing net SourcesThere differing styles and no standard for citing net profit sources. Check with your instructor about whether your institution has a preferred style. In the absence of one, use the spare-time activity style, which is adapted from the designical reference mentioned anteriorAuthor Last Name, First Name. Year. Web Page Title. Website title or owner. Website URL (accessed Date accessed).i Shirley Lindenbaum, Thinking about Cannibalism Annual Reviews vol. 33 (2004) 475-498. http//www.jstor.org/stable/25064862 (accessed January 20, 2010). world-wide Economics peck And dutys international Economics dispense And TariffsINTRODUCTION global economics is be overture a major part of existi ng societies because of the rapid changes occurring in economic merchandises. As days are passing by, governments, consumers, handicraft etc have started realizing that this economic change from their own group, society, city or agricultural is not the only component its the effect of the dynamic world which is taking part as well. Consumers manner of walking in the local shops and buy products grown in their own coarse as well as products grown in other countries. local businesses have to compete with international markets and similarly they can bolster their passably share by selling their plaza grown products internationally as well in this Global time. Advancement of Telecommunications is becoming a rouge factor in this global world as it eases the cost of delivering products internationally. Internet is playing its part as it increases the wide view of markets even more.Easiest management to understand the rising of international economic fruit is to consider the gr owth of exports in the past 50 years or so, assuming that one countrys export would definitely be another countrys import one can easily tell the significant amount of rise in the exports and imports in the past 50 years. earth Exports, 1948-2008 (in Billions of U.S. Dollars)On the other hand, growth in the value of exports, itself, doesnt show the importance of foxiness. A better method is to look at the share of merchandised goods in relation to the size of the world prudence shows world exports as a percentage of the world gross domesticated helpated product (GDP) for the years 1970 to 2008. founding exports which were just 10 percent in 1970 took its time till 2008 but the percentage grew from 10% to 30%. reality Exports, 1970-2008 (Percentage of World GDP)However, as the growth in multinational care and enthronement became more significant, switch over barriers started moving steadily downwards. Just after the World War era, GATT (General apprehension on Tariffs an d deal out) constantly tried to convince the particle countries to reduce dutys (import evaluate) on imported goods. Countries kept on simplification the tax on imports asking for concession in import tax for their products among the constituent countries until the final round of meeting which is known as Uruguay violate held recently in 1994 where Global cunning loosening extended its sphere even more. After that round countries would now not only lower their tariff rates but would liberalize agricultural and services arenas alongside position up a quota system for the multifibre agreement in clothing sector which was one of the hottest issue in the earlier era. WTO (World flock Organization) was established in order to keep these agreements improving on regular terms and to keep discussing on further development in patronage sector and to derive down the disputes among the countries on contend.By the end of 2009, there were 153 particle countries of WTO Trade Liberal ization Club, and many others are pushing to become a part of WTO. This willingness of other countries to join the relaxation method club is only making remedy Trade phenomena easier.Another good result has come from the regional throw in deal agreements. Neighbouring countries or close allot partners have taken a step further and started drop trading which indicates a better afterlife for WTO and even though it is done on the grounds of manage it still resembles the basic ideology of WTO.These changes in economic patterns and a new way towards free trading is becoming a fundamental bridge for globalization. Globalization blind drunks social, economic, cultural and environmental changes which are connecting people all over the world. Since the growing economics aspects of globalization, it is really important to understand the affects of global market over business, consumers and governments. This leads us to study world(prenominal) Economics.LITERATURE REVIEWWhat is inte rnational Economics? outside(a) Economics is the study that assesses the propositions of International Trade, International pay and International Lending and Borrowing. It has two major subfields, International Trade and International Finance. Our main focus in this research is over International Trade.What is International Trade?International Trade is a field in economics which implements certain economic models in order to assess international economic system. It fundamentally works on understanding supply and demand breakdown of International Markets firm and consumer relation oligopolistic and monopolistic market structures and the effects of market distortions.What is Tariff?Tariff is the tax on import that a government imposes on imported goods. It is the most common way to protect ones scrimping is to hive away tariffs on imports. Sometimes this term tariff is used in divers(prenominal) contexts as well for example rail road tariffs but loosely more significantly used in tax on imports.Tariffs are the most common way to generate revenue for the government for centuries. It is the case because it is relatively easy to put custom duty on goods coming from other countries and administratively it is one of the easiest ways to collect tax. Countries simply place their officials at their borders and apply custom duty over the trading goods. tall value of tariffs may give birth to smuggle and people determination ways to get their goods without paying taxes but even ignoring the fact that smuggling does take place, countries generate enough revenue for their governments through tariffs.Every business man wants the deal out to be liberalized, by this trade repose they mean to reduce the tariffs which will make them bring international goods in a cheaper price. Governments resist reducing the tariffs to protect their home grown goods, if international products would come cheap, businesses would have option to get imported products resulting in deduction in home grown products which leads to job hazard or unemployment.Protectionism?Protectionism simply representation protecting home grown goods against imported goods. High tariffs indicates the protection towards home grown products as if the tariffs would be low, businesses would be encouraged to get more goods from international markets rather than home grown goods. There was a time in mid 20th century when countries used to generate bullion for governments by keeping high tariffs on imports. However as trade liberalization took place, other types of non-tariff barriers came into existence as well.RECENT TRADE CONTROVERSIESIn the middle of 2009, world was down to the biggest economic down pull since the early 1980s. Economic growth was going down and the unemployment all over was rising. International trade fell down all over the world and the coronation both domestically and internationally took a downturn. As the economic limit unfolded, there was a similarity between this recession and the outstanding falloff of 1930s. One of the biggest concerns was that countries world power turn endorse to protectionism to raise job opportunities for domestic proletarians. That is barely what countries did during the period of Great Depression and it came up as a negative effect for many of them. This amplitude of negative feeling is nothing new in this current era as it has been coming since the Great Depression between the supporters and opponents of the trade liberalization on Policymaking. Even though trade advocates have successfully opened free trade markets, trade opponents have also been successful in shutting down trade markets. Its like going three steps forward and coming back 2 steps.AMBIVILENCE ABOUT GLOBALIZATIONRealistically speaking, ambivalence about trade and globalization occurred in decade of 1990s and 2000s. Even though in this period there was a buzz of protests and opposition about free trade theories and going global, this was the tim e when remarkable movements of freer trade occurred. Trade Liberalization was at its peak in 1980s. Major success of some of the countries that had outward-economies like South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan etc linked with the countries which were having inward-economies such as Latin America, Africa, India, and elsewhere led to a resurgence of support for trade.Future of trade liberalization is in the hands of time for now, it seems like if this crises is to be ended presently then we might see trade liberalization going to its peak again, but if it continued for a longer period of time, then countries might adopt protectionism in order to raise work for domestic worker which would be a killer for trade liberalization for some time to come. Economic crises have led in favor of protectionism in the past but that protectionism didnt bolster the economies, it rather did little good and worst the effect of depression as can be understood by the period of Great Depression. Curren t scenario may have little hopes for trade liberalization as history is opting to repeat itself.DISCUSSIONThe Great Depression, Smoot-Hawley, and the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (RTAA)The greatest historical motivator for trade liberalization since the World War II was the period of Great Depression. The disaster apparently began with clangour of US Stock Market in late 1929. It imminently pulled the world economy in an extremely rapid pace. By 1930, the US economy had shrink by 8.6 percent and the unemployment rate jumped to 8.9 percent. With this contraction, came an alarming call for protectionism for domestic goods against the internationally bought imported goods.In May 1930, almost 1028 economists signed a petition against the rising tariff and marched a campaign towards President vacuum of that time. Despite of this petition signed by so many economists, in June 1930 came the Smooth-Hawley Act (tariff Act of 1930) which almost rose up to 60 percent of import duties. Due to the fact that not only US was ache from the economic crises, international exporters who were doing business with US were also suffering from economic crises chose to chime ind their own increase in tariffs to save their own domestic economy in retaliation. It effected in a dramatic drop in trade among the countries and added even worst effect to the ongoing depression.In following years, economic crises grew even worst. The US economy continued to contract at double digits and by the year 1933 the unemployment rate raised up to 24.9 percent. In 1932, Franklyn Roosevelt ran for the President and spoke against the high tariffs. By the year 1934 a new scheme accepting the advantages of trade liberalization was awardd. It was Congress that passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Acts (RTAA) which allowed the president to negotiate symmetrically symmetric tariff reduction agreements over different products.It worked as President of US would send his agents to say Mexico and introd uce a reduced tariff rates to the products brought in US and in place ask them to reduce tariffs on different set apart of products that could be taken from US. Once the agreement is done by the government trade could get started. Thats exactly what happened, and it pushed the wheel for trade again. Over 60 bilateral deals were placed and accepted among different countries under RTAA which set the platform for trade liberalization for decades to come.SIGNIFICANCE OF RTAARTAA is considered significant for two reasons. First one has to be that it was the first time US Congress granted access of Trade Authorities directly to the President for the Trade Policymaking. Secondly it served as the basis for the foundation of GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). Under GATT countries would also discuss about getting concession in tariffs rather than only doing bilateral trade among the members of GATT. That was the main difference in GATT and RTAA that RTAA only worked in a bilatera l Trade form while GATT worked in a multilateral trade form.GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)What is GATT?General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided the basic trade rules and solution in dispute over trades among the members from 1948 to 1994. It was one of the three Breton Woods Organizations came into existence after the World War II. Its inclination was to promote trade liberalization by reducing high tariffs.In reality, General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) wasnt meant to be organized as a standalone body. It was a part of a much wider agreement to establish International Trade Organization (ITO). Intentions of ITO were to assign trade rules and supportive guidelines that would help member countries to do trade. The ITO was conceived during the Breton Woods conference attended by the main affiliate countries in New Hampshire in 1944 and was seen as complementary to two other organizations also conceived there the International Monetary Fund (I MF) and the World coast. The IMF would varan and regulate the international fixed exchange rate system, the World Bank would assist with loans for reconstruction and development, and the ITO would regulate international trade.What was the Goal of GATT?General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as the name suggests consists of the clauses which makes members agree on a similar set of trade policies that suits the trading parties. Basic goal was to introduce some set of rules for trade, that would be helpful in bringing up trade liberalization and thus end up in reducing trade barriers. Countries that make these commitments and sign on to the agreement are called signer countries. All the discussions that take place before the agreement are referred to as rounds. Each round is given a name according to the location it takes place or to a prominent figure taking place in that round. There were eight rounds of negotiation under the GATTGeneva lot (1948),Annecy Round (1950),Torque Round (1951),Geneva II Round (1956),Dillon Round (1962),Kennedy Round (1967),Tokyo Round (1979), andUruguay Round (1994)The most important note was that agreements were made by mutual consent. A round finishes only when every negotiating country is satisfied with the promises it and all of its negotiating partners are making. The slogan sometimes used is Nothing Is Agreed until Everything Is Agreed.WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)World Trade Organization (WTO) was established to Liberalize International Trade and supervises some set rules. It actually replaced the work done by General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). WTO was established in January 1 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement. Its goals are exactly the same as of (GATT) to promote trade liberalization. It is relatively a small body based in Geneva having a director ordinary and a small staff of economists, lawyers and others.WTO is sometimes taken as a Trade Law making body, and that is wrong, because it doesnt make an y trade laws. It follows the set of rules described in Uruguay Round and each country has to decide their own trade rules. What it does is, it settles down the negotiations between the member countries and solves the disputes as it may require. anyhow monitoring each member countrys trade policies, which the WTO fulfils by conducting periodic trade policy reviews of the member countries, the WTO club was also created to deal with disputes. This is surely the most important power of the WTO.CONCLUSIONSince the WTO began in 1995 there have been over four hundred disputes brought to the DSB. Large number countries have been complainants and defendants although the two countries most often on one side or the other are the United States and the EU. Some of the most well-known disputes have involved bananas, steel, hormone-treated beef, and technical aircraft. Lesser-known cases have involved narrow product groups such as flier Welded Carbon Quality Line Pipe, Canned Tuna with Soybean Oil, straighten out Cotton Yarn, and Retreaded Tires.Traders know better what to expect from their trading partners because their partners have act themselves to particular trade policies and to a resolution mechanism in the event of noncompliance. In a sense, then, it is true that the WTO agreements restrict the freedom of a country to set whatever trade policy it deems appropriate for the moment. That loss of sovereignty, though, is intentional to prevent countries from choosing more destructive protectionist policiespolicies that are very seductive to voters, in particular in an economic crisis. If successful, the WTO could prevent a reoccurrence of Smoot-Hawley and its aftermath both now and in the future.